Questions tagged [power-towers]

For questions pertaining to power towers: expressions like a^(b^(c^d))), which result from iterated exponentiation. The "hyperoperation" tag may be appropriate, too.

Power towers are obtained by iterated exponentiation; an archetypal example is:

$\large a^{b^{c^d}}$

Power towers have been studied a lot; there is particularly many information on:

  • Modular arithmetic with power towers;
  • Convergence of "infinite" power towers; for example: $$\large\sqrt2^{\sqrt2^{\sqrt2^{\cdots}}} = 2$$

If we have a (finite) power tower with the same number repeated, such as the one with $\sqrt 2$ above, we speak of tetration. Tetration is the fourth hyperoperation, so if applicable, also include the tag.

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Can $x^{x^{x^x}}$ be a rational number?

If $x$ is a positive rational number, but not an integer, then can $x^{x^{x^x}}$ be a rational number ? We can prove that if $x$ is a positive rational number but not an integer, then $x^x$ can not be rational: Denote…
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Complexity class of comparison of power towers

Consider the following decision problem: given two lists of positive integers $a_1, a_2, \dots, a_n$ and $b_1, b_2, \dots, b_m$ the task is to decide if $a_1^{a_2^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot^{a_n}}}}} < b_1^{b_2^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot^{b_m}}}}}$. Is this…
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Are these solutions of $2 = x^{x^{x^{\:\cdot^{\:\cdot^{\:\cdot}}}}}$ correct?

Find $x$ in $$ \Large 2 = x^{x^{x^{\:\cdot^{\:\cdot^{\:\cdot}}}}}$$ A trick to solve this is to see that $$\large 2 = x^{x^{x^{\:\cdot^{\:\cdot^{\:\cdot}}}}} \quad\implies\quad 2 = x^{\Big(x^{x^{x^{\:\cdot^{\:\cdot^{\:\cdot}}}}}\Big)} =…
GarouDan
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How many values of $2^{2^{2^{.^{.^{.^{2}}}}}}$ depending on parenthesis?

Suppose we have a power tower consisting of $2$ occurring $n$ times: $$\huge2^{2^{2^{.^{.^{.^{2}}}}}}$$ How many values can we generate by placing any number of parenthesis? It is fairly simple for the first few values of $n$: There is $1$ value…
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Is each of $\int_0^\infty\frac{dx}{x^x},\int_0^\infty\frac{dx}{x^{x^{x^x}}},\int_0^\infty\frac{dx}{x^{x^{x^{x^{x^x}}}}},\cdots$ less than $2$?

A few years ago I asked about the inequality Prove that $\int_0^\infty\frac1{x^x}\, dx<2$. As I came back to revisit it, I found that each of the following tetration integrals…
TheSimpliFire
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A new interesting pattern to $i\uparrow\uparrow n$ that looks cool (and $z\uparrow\uparrow x$ for $z\in\mathbb C,x\in\mathbb R$)

Many of you may recall "An obvious pattern to $i\uparrow\uparrow n$ that is eluding us all?", an old question of mine, and just recently, I saw this new question that poses a simple extension to tetration at non-integer values: $$a\uparrow\uparrow…
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Which is bigger: $9^{9^{9^{9^{9^{9^{9^{9^{9^{9}}}}}}}}}$ or $9!!!!!!!!!$?

In my classes I sometimes have a contest concerning who can write the largest number in ten symbols. It almost never comes up, but I'm torn between two "best" answers: a stack of ten 9's (exponents) or a 9 followed by nine factorial symbols. Both…
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An obvious pattern to $i\uparrow\uparrow n$ that is eluding us all?

Start with $i=\sqrt{-1}$. This will be $a_1$. $a_2$ will be $i^i$. $a_3$ will be $i^{i^{i}}$. $\vdots$ etc. In Knuth up-arrow notation: $$a_n=i\uparrow\uparrow n$$ And, amazingly, you can evaluate…
Simply Beautiful Art
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What is the derivative of: $f(x)=x^{2x^{3x^{4x^{5x^{6x^{7x^{.{^{.^{.}}}}}}}}}}$?

I happened to ponder about the differentiation of the following function: $$f(x)=x^{2x^{3x^{4x^{5x^{6x^{7x^{.{^{.^{.}}}}}}}}}}$$ Now, while I do know how to manipulate power towers to a certain extent, and know the general formula to differentiate…
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What is the derivative of ${}^xx$

How would one find: $$\frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dx}{}^xx?$$ where ${}^ba$ is defined by $${}^ba\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\underbrace{ a^{a^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot^a}}}}}_{\text{$b$ times}}$$ Work so far The interval that I am working in is $(0,…
Ali Caglayan
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Seems that I just proved $2=4$.

Solving $x^{x^{x^{.^{.^.}}}}=2\Rightarrow x^2=2\Rightarrow x=\sqrt 2$. Solving $x^{x^{x^{.^{.^.}}}}=4\Rightarrow x^4=4\Rightarrow x=\sqrt 2$. Therefore, $\sqrt 2^{\sqrt 2^{\sqrt 2^{.^{.^.}}}}=2$ and $\sqrt 2^{\sqrt 2^{\sqrt…
JSCB
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Prove that $2^{2^{\sqrt3}}>10$

With a computer or calculator, it is easy to show that $$ 2^{2^\sqrt{3}} = 10.000478 \ldots > 10. $$ How can we prove that $2^{2^{\sqrt3}}>10$ without a calculator?
piteer
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Convergence of $a_n=(1/2)^{(1/3)^{...^{(1/n)}}}$

The sequence $a_n=(1/2)^{(1/3)^{...^{(1/n)}}}$ doesn't converge, but instead has two limits, for $a_{2n}$ and one for $a_{2n+1}$ (calculated by computer - they fluctuate by about 0.3 at around 0.67). Why is this?
ammm
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Explain $x^{x^{x^{{\cdots}}}} = \,\,3$

$$x^{x^{x^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot}}}}} =\quad 2$$ This equation has the answer $\sqrt{2}$ by taking $\log$ to both side. This answer is correct because I'd proved it by computing the equation repeatedly by replacing $x$ with $\sqrt{2}$ and the answer…
off99555
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What is wrong with this funny proof that 2 = 4 using infinite exponentiation?

Out of boredom, I decided to recall the following equation: $$x^{x^{x\cdots}} = 2.$$ Which, I simply rewrote like this: $x^2 = 2$, and therefore $x = \sqrt{2}$. Then I took a look at the more general form: $$x^{x^{x\cdots}} = p.$$ I then…
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